Grammar Reference

Forms of be in the present, contractions (I'm, isn't) and the three sentence types

I can introduce myself and others and ask simple questions with am/is/are.

Habits and facts with the present simple; the third-person -s and do/does negatives and questions

I can talk about routines and facts and ask about them with do/does.

Actions happening now with be + -ing, spelling of -ing forms, and the contrast with the present simple

I can describe what is happening right now and contrast it with routines.

can/can't for ability, permission and polite requests; one form for all persons

I can talk about abilities, ask for permission and make simple requests with can.

Finished past actions with -ed; spelling and pronunciation of -ed; didn't and did questions

I can narrate finished past events with regular verbs and ask about them with did.

The core irregular set (went, had, said, got, made, saw...) and was/were as the past of be

I can use the core irregular pasts and was/were fluently in stories and questions.

Possession two ways: have got (I've got a car, have you got...?) vs plain have (I have a car, do you have...?); US/GB preferences

I can express possession with both have got and have, without mixing their question machineries.

Talking about likes: like/love/hate/enjoy + -ing (I like swimming), would like + infinitive for wishes

I can talk about likes with -ing forms and order politely with would like.

have/has + past participle for experiences and results connected to now; ever, never, just, already, yet

I can talk about experiences and present results with the present perfect and its markers.

Spontaneous decisions and predictions with will; plans and evidence-based predictions with going to

I can choose between will and going to for decisions, plans and predictions.

was/were + -ing for background actions; the when/while interrupted-action pattern

I can set the scene in past stories and combine background and events with when/while.

Commands, instructions and invitations: base form, Don't..., Let's..., and softening with please/just

I can give directions, instructions and suggestions with the imperative and let's.

Obligation with must/have to and the critical negative split: mustn't (forbidden) vs don't have to (not necessary)

I can express obligation, prohibition and absence of necessity without mixing the negatives.

Giving advice with should + bare infinitive; softer alternatives (maybe you should, I think you should)

I can give, soften and ask for advice with should.

Two jobs of could: past of can (I could swim at five) and politeness upgrade (Could you help me?)

I can use could for past abilities and to upgrade requests politely.

Verbs that refuse -ing: know, want, like, need, believe, understand, belong; the think/have/see meaning splits

I can keep state verbs in simple forms and switch the double-life verbs by meaning.

The decision system: finished time vs open time, news vs details, for/since vs ago

I can pick the right past tense by time frame, news value and duration.

be + past participle across tenses, when to choose passive, and by-agents

I can form the passive across tenses and decide when it beats the active.

Timetables with the present simple (the train leaves at 6) and arrangements with the present continuous (I'm meeting Tom tomorrow)

I can choose among the four future forms by how fixed the plan is.

The before-the-past tense: had + past participle (the train had left when we arrived); with when/after/by the time

I can sequence two past events with past perfect where the order matters.

Duration up to now: have been waiting for two hours; result-traces (you've been running!); vs present perfect simple

I can express duration up to now and process traces with have been doing.

Guessing about now and the future: it may/might/could rain; certainty scale from will to won't; may for permission

I can place guesses on the will-to-won't certainty scale with may/might/could.

The fine grain of obligation: ought to (moral should), had better (warning), be supposed to (expected but...), needn't

I can shade obligation with ought to, had better, be supposed to and needn't.

Verb + particle = new meaning (give up, look after, run into); separable vs inseparable basics; the pronoun rule

I can use core phrasal verbs and place pronouns inside separable ones.

The want/ask/tell sb to do pattern; bare infinitive after let/make/help; no that-clause after want

I can build want/tell/let patterns with the right infinitive and no that-clause.

Regrets and wants: wish + past (present regret), wish + past perfect (past regret), wish + would (annoyance)

I can express present and past regrets and polite frustration with wish/if only.

get + participle for events, causative have/get something done, and passive reporting (is said to)

I can use get-passives, order services with have something done and report claims with is said to.

Certainty scales for present (must be / can't be) and past (must have been / can't have been) deductions

I can grade certainty about present and past situations with the modal deduction system.

Which verbs take -ing, which take to, and the meaning-changing pairs (stop/remember/try doing vs to do)

I can pick gerund or infinitive by verb group and control the meaning-changing pairs.

Discontinued habits and states with used to, narrative would, and the be/get used to trap

I can describe discontinued habits and states and keep used to apart from be used to.

will have done for deadlines (by Friday) and will be doing for actions in progress at a future time

I can talk about deadlines with will have done and future moments with will be doing.

Weaving stories: past simple (events), past continuous (background), past perfect (flashback), past perfect continuous (running background)

I can layer a story with all four narrative tenses doing their jobs.

The mandative subjunctive after suggest/demand/insist (that he be, that she arrive), formulaic survivals, and BrE should-alternative

I can use the mandative subjunctive in formal proposals and recognize its frozen formulas.

Separable vs inseparable, the pronoun rule (turn it off), three-part verbs (look forward to) and particle meanings

I can place objects and pronouns correctly in all four phrasal verb classes.

Beyond if: inverted conditionals (Had I known, Should you need, Were she to ask), but for + noun, provided/unless/suppose

I can build inverted and but-for conditionals in formal register.

Distancing structures: It is said/believed that... and He is said/thought to be...; to have done for past; news register

I can report claims without naming sources using both passive frames.

When to use a/an, the or no article — the core decision system with first/second mention and unique things

I can choose between a/an, the and no article in everyday sentences.

Regular -s/-es plurals, spelling rules (city→cities) and the key irregulars (children, men, feet)

I can form regular and the most frequent irregular plurals with correct spelling.

The countability system: much/many, some/any, a few/a little, and classic uncountables (advice, money, information)

I can quantify countable and uncountable nouns correctly, including the classic trap nouns.

the with institutions, geography and superlatives; zero article in prison/at school; the + adjective groups

I can handle the institutional, geographic and group uses of the article system.

The article that changes everything: few (almost none) vs a few (some); plus most (of), all vs whole, no vs none

I can fine-tune quantity meaning with few/a few, most (of), all/whole and no/none.

The possessive 's (Anna's car), s' for plurals, and the my/your/his/her row including its vs it's

I can express possession with 's and the my/your row, including the its/it's distinction.

The wh-question toolkit: question word + do/does/did or be, plus how + adjective combos (how old, how much)

I can ask wh-questions with do-support and use how-combinations.

Near/far and singular/plural in one grid: this/these (here), that/those (there); phone English (this is Anna)

I can point near and far with this/that/these/those and introduce people and myself on the phone.

The one case English kept: I→me, he→him, she→her, we→us, they→them; after verbs and prepositions

I can replace nouns with the right object pronouns after verbs and prepositions.

my book → the book is mine; the full my/mine grid, whose-questions and the of mine pattern (a friend of mine)

I can use the my/mine grid, ask whose-questions and say a friend of mine.

The some/any/no/every + thing/one/where grid; single negation (I know nothing vs I don't know anything)

I can use the compound pronoun grid with single negation and singular every-words.

Avoiding noun repetition with one/ones (Which bag? The red one); which-questions; this one / that one

I can replace repeated nouns with one/ones and choose between things with which one.

Talking about two: both (the two), either (one of two / any of two), neither (none of two); both...and, either...or, neither...nor

I can handle two-item logic with both/either/neither and their paired conjunctions.

Saying that something exists or is located somewhere: there is/are, negatives and questions

I can describe what exists in a place and ask about facilities.

The full question machine: yes/no and wh-questions across present and past, word order QASV

I can build yes/no and wh-questions in present and past with the QASV pattern.

Why-answers with to + verb (I went out to buy bread); for + noun vs to + verb; negative purpose with so as not to

I can express purpose with to + verb and for + noun, including negative purpose.

Cause, result and contrast in one kit: because (reason), so (result), but/although (contrast); no comma before because

I can join clauses with because/so/but/although without doubling connectors.

Real future conditions (if + present, will) and unreal present ones (if + past, would), incl. If I were you

I can build real and unreal conditions and give advice with If I were you.

Defining vs non-defining clauses, who/which/that/whose, and when the pronoun can disappear

I can describe people and things with relative clauses and control the comma distinction.

Backshift after said/told, pronoun and time-word changes, reported questions and commands

I can report statements, questions and commands with correct backshift and word changes.

so + adjective (so cold) vs such + (a) noun phrase (such a cold day); so...that / such...that results

I can choose so or such by what follows and build so/such...that results.

Contrast machinery: although/though + clause, despite/in spite of + noun/-ing; despite the fact that; though at the end

I can choose between although + clause and despite + noun and dodge despite of.

Polite question wrappers: Could you tell me / Do you know + statement order (where the station is, if the shop is open)

I can wrap questions politely with statement order and if/whether.

Unreal past with if + past perfect / would have done, and mixing past causes with present results

I can speculate about the unreal past and link past causes to present results.

Polarity-reversing tags (isn't it?, do they?), the special cases (aren't I, shall we, will you) and intonation

I can attach the right question tag with the right intonation, including the special cases.

Trimming who is/which was: the man standing there, the books sold last year, the first person to arrive

I can compress relative clauses into participle and infinitive phrases with the right voice.

Contrast, cause and addition for essays: the grammar behind although/despite/however and their punctuation

I can link essay ideas with the right word class and punctuation.

Emphatic openings: Never have I..., Not only... but also, Rarely does..., and when to deploy them

I can open emphatic sentences with negative adverbials and correct inversion.

Reporting verb patterns (suggest doing, accuse of, warn against), embedded questions politeness, and when backshift is optional

I can report with precise verb patterns and ask embedded questions politely.

Universal concession: whatever happens, whoever calls, however hard it gets; no matter + wh-word; wherever/whenever

I can build whatever/whoever/however concessions and their no matter twins.

Real vs unreal comparisons: looks as if it's going to rain (real) vs acts as if he owned the place (unreal past); like in speech

I can signal real vs unreal comparisons through the tense after as if.

Beyond negatives: so/such inversion, conditional inversion (Had I known, Should you need), and place-phrase inversion

I can use so/such, conditional and locative inversion for formal emphasis.

Focusing with It was X who/that... and What I need is..., plus all/the thing/the reason variants

I can redirect focus in writing with it-clefts, what-clefts and their variants.

Not repeating yourself: short agreements (So do I / Neither can she), do so, one/ones, and if so/if not

I can agree, disagree and avoid repetition with the so/neither/do so toolkit.

Adverbial compression: -ing for simultaneous (Walking home, I...), having done for earlier, done for passive; the dangling trap

I can compress adverbial clauses into participle phrases without dangling them.

Information packaging: fronted objects and complements (That I doubt), end-weight, and existential there as a weight valve

I can package information with fronting and end-weight like an editor.

Correlative frames: the more...the more, no sooner...than, hardly...when, as...as constructions, so much so that

I can deploy correlative frames with native rhythm and correct internal syntax.

The in/on/at system for both time (at 5, on Monday, in May) and place (at home, on the table, in Prague)

I can place events and objects with in/on/at using the point–surface–container logic.

The movement set: into/out of, onto/off, across, through, along, past, over, under, up/down - one verb, many paths

I can draw movement paths with the right prepositions while keeping verbs simple.

The three time anchors: for + duration, since + starting point, ago + distance back; which tenses they pull

I can anchor time with for/since/ago and let each pull its right tense.

Words that own their prepositions: depend on, accuse of, good at, interested in, married to; preposition + -ing

I know the dependent prepositions of high-frequency verbs and adjectives, with -ing after them.

English adjectives never change: a red car, two red cars, the soup is hot; position before the noun or after be/look/feel

I can place unchanging adjectives before nouns and after linking verbs.

-er/-est for short adjectives, more/most for long ones, irregular good/better/best, and than/the

I can compare people, places and things and pick favourites with superlatives.

Equality and its denial: as tall as, not as/so big as; twice as much as; as soon/long/far as possible

I can state equality, deny it and multiply it with the as...as frame.

Feeling vs source: I'm bored (feeling) because the film is boring (cause); the full interested/exciting family

I can split feelings (-ed) from their causes (-ing) across the emotion adjectives.

always–usually–often–sometimes–rarely–never and their position: before the verb, after be

I can say how often I do things with correctly placed frequency adverbs.

too + adjective (too hot) vs adjective + enough (warm enough); too much/many; + to-infinitive consequences

I can place too and enough correctly and attach to-infinitive consequences.

Building and placing -ly adverbs (slowly, carefully); irregulars well/fast/hard; hard vs hardly; adjective after look/feel

I can build -ly adverbs, place them after the object and avoid the hard/hardly trap.

Saying dates (May the fifth / the fifth of May), years (twenty twenty-six), and time (half past two, a quarter to five); US/GB date order

I can say dates, years and clock times and avoid the US/GB numeric-date trap.

Agreeing in echo: So do I / So am I / So can she; Neither do I for negatives; the auxiliary must match

I can echo agreement with the matching auxiliary in so/neither patterns.

Softening claims (appear, suggest, arguably, to some extent) and signalling stance (admittedly, crucially)

I can calibrate academic claims with hedging and stance markers at publication level.

Mapping anyway/mind you/as it were/that said/by and large to their registers, and conversation management

I can pick discourse markers that fit the register and manage conversations with them.

The C1 concession shelf: albeit + phrase, much as I admire..., adjective + as/though it is, that said, granted

I can concede points elegantly with albeit, much as and fronted-adjective patterns.

Reading the classics and formal prose: whom/whomever, whence/whither, thou/thee, were he to, methinks, albeit

I can read archaic and high-formal English and deploy the living survivors (whom, albeit) accurately.

gotten, collective nouns, shall, subjunctive vigour, prepositions (at/on the weekend), and tense choices (just ate vs have just eaten)

I can keep a consistent US or GB grammar profile and explain the differences.

What style guides fight about and what usage actually does: to boldly go, singular they, ending with prepositions, less/fewer

I know the canonical usage disputes, the current verdicts, and how to choose per audience.

One message, five registers: legal, academic, business, neutral, casual — and deliberate register-breaking

I can render one message in five registers and break register deliberately for effect.

What natives get wrong (should of, your/you're, its/it's, me and him went) — and why C2 learners can know better

I recognize the canonical native errors, avoid importing them, and never preach.

Block language decoded: zero articles/be (MAYOR QUITS), present = past, to-infinitive = future, noun pile-ups, comma = and

I can decode headline grammar including noun pile-ups and the to-future.

How conversation really works: headers (That guy, he...), tails (..., that film), vague language (stuff, -ish), response tokens (Fair enough, I know, right?)

I can use headers, tails, vague language and response tokens like a native conversationalist.

Turning verbs into nouns (fail→failure, assess→assessment), when it sharpens prose and when it kills it

I can nominalize for cohesion and denominalize for clarity in academic prose.

The light-verb system: make a decision, do research, have a shower, take a break — and why mistakes here mark non-natives

I can pair nouns with their light verbs natively: make/do/have/take/pay/give.

En vs em dash, the Oxford comma debate, US/GB quotation styles, and colons/semicolons in formal prose

I can punctuate to professional US or GB house style, consistently.

How stress placement changes meaning (I didn't say HE stole it), thought groups, and intonation of finality vs continuation

I can move sentence stress to steer meaning and read intonation contours precisely.