Grammar Reference

All 33 Mkhedruli letters with names, IPA and examples: one letter = one sound, three stop series, and the uvular ejective ყ.

I can read all 33 Mkhedruli letters, tell the voiced, aspirated and ejective series apart, and pronounce ყ as a uvular ejective.

The three-series architecture of Georgian verbs and the case frame each series imposes (NOM/ERG/DAT).

I can classify any verb form into its series and predict the case frame of the sentence.

The future of most verbs = present form + a preverb (ga-, da-, mo-, c'a-): vak'eteb -> gavak'eteb.

I can talk about plans and what will happen using future forms.

The six-person aorist endings for both major types (dats'era-type and motion-verb type) including the 2nd-person -khv- insert.

I can narrate past events about any person - I, you, we, the guests - with correct aorist endings.

Producing all four version frames: neutral, subjective i-, objective u-, superessive a- - the beneficiary geometry of the Georgian verb.

I can route an action's benefit - to myself, to others, onto surfaces - with version vowels.

Figurative preverb senses: gada- (re-/overdo), mo- (slightly), ts'amo- (burst out), shemo- + inversion (accidentally).

I can read and use preverbs in their figurative senses - including the famous accidental shemo-.

The aorist for completed past actions; transitive verbs put their subject in the ergative (-ma).

I can describe completed past events with regular verbs.

Producing polypersonal verb forms: stacking person prefixes, version vowels, and plural -t to encode two or three participants.

I can build verb forms that encode subject and object(s) in one word.

Present tense of 'to be': var, khar, aris, vart, khart, arian - always expressed, often as a suffix.

I can introduce myself and others using the present forms of 'to be'.

Forming the optative from the aorist (davts'ero, ts'avide) and its three homes: unda, minda rom, and bare suggestions.

I can express obligation, wishes, and let's-suggestions using the optative.

Indirect-subject modals: minda (want), shemidzlia (can), unda (must) with masdar or da-clause.

I can say what I want, can, and must do.

The four-class verb taxonomy (transitive, intransitive, medial, inversion) and what each class predicts.

I can classify verbs into the four classes and predict their case behavior.

Causative formation with a-...-in-eb (ats'erinebs), dative causees, and lexicalized causatives (ach'mevs, asts'avlis).

I can express making, letting, feeding, and teaching with causative verbs.

The frozen modal unda with present, past, and future obligation, plus the ar unda / aghar unda negation split.

I can express what I must do, had to do, and no longer need to do.

The i-...-eba and -d-eba passives for agentless processes (its'ereba, shendeba, iqideba).

I can describe processes, availability, and rules with passive forms.

Medial activity verbs: i-prefixed futures/aorists (imushavebs, imushava) and ergative aorist subjects without objects.

I can conjugate activity verbs through all series with the i-pattern and ergative aorists.

Series III perfect: experiential (odesme ginakhavs?) and evidential (turme) readings, with the dative-subject inversion.

I can talk about life experience and report things I heard using the perfect.

The three participle families: agent m-...-eli, patient -ili/-uli, and past na-...-i, declining like adjectives.

I can read and build participles for doers, results, and proverbs.

Class IV verbs through the three series: permanent dative subjects, no ergative ever, irregular perfects (mkonia, shemqvarebia).

I can carry love-have-remember verbs through every tense without losing the inversion.

The conditional as habitual past (dajdeboda - he would sit), optionally reinforced with kholme, vs its unreal reading.

I can narrate recurring past scenes with the habitual conditional.

Recognize the object prefixes inside verbs: m- (me), g- (you), gv- (us) - gelodebi 'I wait for you'.

I can recognize who does what to whom in verbs with object markers.

The stative verbs' special tense system: suppletive pasts (idga, ijda, ets'va, ek'ida), no aorist, no ergative.

I can describe scenes in past, present, and future with the posture verbs.

The six high-frequency verbs whose past stems must be memorized: ts'avedi, movedi, vtkvi, vnakhe, davlie, vch'ame.

I can tell what I did yesterday using the most common irregular past forms.

Two 'have' verbs: makvs for things, mqavs for people and animals.

I can say what I own and who is in my family using makvs and mqavs correctly.

Three-role verbs (mistsa, utkhra, achuka): series-ruled giver and theme, always-dative recipient, recipient echoed in the verb.

I can build give/tell/send sentences with all three roles correctly cased.

Present tense pattern: v- marks 'I', -s marks 'he/she', -en marks 'they'.

I can conjugate common verbs in the present tense and talk about everyday activities.

Recognizing version vowels: i- (for self), u- (for another), and the g+i merge (for you) in high-frequency verbs.

I can recognize who benefits from an action by reading the verb's version vowel.

The experiencer-verb family mt'k'iva/mtsiva/mshia/mts'quria/meshinia: the feeler is a dative m-/g-/gv- marker inside the verb.

I can say what hurts and how I feel (cold, hungry, thirsty, afraid) using dative experiencer verbs.

Aspect in commands: preverbed imperatives for completion (dats'ere!), bare stems for process/habit (ts'ere!), nu + present for prohibitions.

I can give one-off orders, standing advice, and gentle prohibitions with the right aspect.

The -t suffix pluralizing subjects (midikhart), objects (gelodebit), and building let's-forms (ts'avidet).

I can pluralize verb forms correctly for we, you-all, and them - and read whose plurality -t marks.

The masdar as the verb's noun form: declining, taking postpositions (ts'asvlamde, ch'amis shemdeg), replacing the missing infinitive.

I can compress before/after/for-clauses into masdar phrases.

Fixed polite request forms with -t politeness and tu sheidzleba ('if possible/please').

I can make polite requests and apologize in everyday situations.

The complete modal system: obligation, past obligation, and the inferential ts'asuli unda iqos pattern, plus sheidzleba's parallel track.

I can express duties, missed duties, and confident deductions about the past.

The imperfect for ongoing and habitual past vs the aorist for completed events - the Georgian aspect pair.

I can tell layered past stories - background in the imperfect, events in the aorist.

Past forms of the modal/feeling verbs: mindoda, shemedzlo, vitsodi, miqvarda - imperfect morphology, dative architecture intact.

I can talk about what I wanted, could, knew, and loved in the past.

Preverbs as perfectivizers: lexical verb+preverb pairs, obligatory in future/aorist, dropped in the imperfect.

I can switch between process and completion with the right lexical preverb.

The six directional preverbs (mi-, mo-, she-, ga-, a-, cha-) on the motion stem -di-, plus stacked shemo-/gamo-.

I can narrate movement precisely - in, out, up, down, toward and away.

Passive command of Old Georgian markers: -man ergative, vitarmed, kholo, rametu, ars - for classics and liturgy.

I can read classical and liturgical Georgian passages without stumbling on archaic forms.

Reading Rustaveli: shairi inversions, the old -ta plural, archaic optatives, and the most-quoted aphorisms.

I can recognize and respond to Rustaveli quotations in modern Georgian discourse.

Recognizing regional speech (Kakhetian, Imeretian, Gurian, mountain dialects) and the Megrelian/Svan language distinction.

I can follow regionally colored speech and navigate Georgia's language map respectfully.

The fixed grammar of proverbs: archaic ara negation, masdar parallelism, universalizing -ts, and quotative tags.

I can read, quote, and aptly deploy Georgian proverbs with their fixed grammar intact.

Conscious register control: bureaucratic, neutral, colloquial, and slang grammar - and switching between them appropriately.

I can switch between official, neutral, casual, and slang Georgian to fit the situation.

Academic register mechanics: impersonal passives, -ta genitive chains, masdar nominalization, and hedging predicates.

I can read and write academic Georgian prose with its impersonal machinery.

Headline grammar: masdar titles, verbless clauses, participial compression, and the unverified-claim -o.

I can read Georgian news fluently and tell reported claims from asserted facts.

Decoding and appropriately using spoken contractions: araa, kaia, dzaan, mara, magrad, magaria.

I can decode street-speed Georgian and choose when contractions fit.

Navigating loan vs native vocabulary by register: Russian-era loans, anglicisms, literary equivalents, and nativized winners.

I can choose between loan and native vocabulary to match the register.

High-frequency verb-noun collocations and near-synonym pairs that select different verbs - the C2 polish layer.

I can pair nouns with their fixed verbs so my Georgian stops sounding translated.

Verse grammar: postposed adjectives in vocative chains, the poetic -v vocative, and archaic forms preserved by meter.

I can follow song lyrics and verse, and hear where poetry bends the grammar.

Producing the ergative: transitive aorist subjects take -ma/-m, objects shift to nominative; intransitives stay nominative.

I can mark aorist subjects correctly - ergative for transitive, nominative for intransitive verbs.

One plural ending for everything: -ebi. Drop a final -i, add -ebi.

I can form plurals with -ebi and keep nouns singular after numerals.

The essive use of -ad: professions (ekimad), functions (sachukrad), judgments (megobrad michachnia), transformations (sakhlad iktsa).

I can mark professions, functions, and transformations with the essive -ad.

Genitive -is chains: possessor before possessed, stacking left to right (Ninos dis bina - Nino's sister's flat).

I can build possessive phrases and two-link genitive chains in the correct Georgian order.

The fully regular plural declension: stem + -eb- + case marker across all five cases.

I can decline plural nouns through all cases with the -eb- plug.

The instrumental ending -it for means and tools: avtobusit (by bus), pekhit (on foot), khelit (by hand) - no preposition needed.

I can say by what transport I travel and with what tool I do things using -it.

Seven cases at a glance; A1 focus: nominative -i, dative -s, genitive -is.

I can recognize the seven cases and actively use nominative, dative and genitive.

Direct-address forms: -i becomes -o (shvilo!, megobaro!), vowel-final names unchanged - the living Georgian vocative.

I can address people warmly and correctly using the Georgian vocative.

In the aorist past, the subject of an action verb takes -ma: katsma dawera.

I can recognize the ergative -ma on past-tense subjects in simple sentences.

All quantity words take singular nouns: bevri, tsota, ramdenime, qvela (+ singular verb agreement).

I can quantify things correctly - always with the singular.

Personal pronouns: me, shen, is, chven, tkven, isini - and when to drop them.

I can use the six personal pronouns and know that Georgian has no grammatical gender.

Three-way demonstratives: es (near me), eg (near you), is (far from both).

I can point to things with es, eg and is depending on where they are.

chemi (my), sheni (your), misi (his/her), chveni (our), tkveni (your pl.), mati (their).

I can say what belongs to whom with chemi, sheni, misi, chveni, tkveni and mati.

Case forms of vin (who) and ra (what): vis, visi, ras, rit, ram - the question word matches the answer's case.

I can ask whose, whom, and by what means using correctly cased question words.

The reflexive possessive tavisi (subject's own) vs plain misi (someone else's) - the svoj/jego distinction.

I can mark ownership unambiguously with tavisi and misi.

The reflexive object tavs (vgrdznob tavs), emphatic tviton/tavad, and reciprocal ertmaneti.

I can talk about how I feel, what I did myself, and what we do for each other.

The three-way demonstrative system es/eg/is and its derivative families (ak/mand/ik, ase/egre/ise, amisi/magisi/imisi).

I can point across all three zones - mine, yours, and beyond.

The ar- and ver-series negative pronouns (aravin/veravin, arsad/versad) and the no-double-negation rule.

I can use nobody/nothing/nowhere in both series without double negation.

Comparative with upro + -ze on the standard; superlative with qvelaze.

I can compare people, places, and things.

Completing comparison: upro...vidre, the -ze standard, qvelaze superlatives, and the literary u-...-esi circumfix.

I can compare people, places, and dishes with all four Georgian comparison tools.

Attributive adjectives precede the noun and stay unchanged; predicative adjectives take the -a copula.

I can describe people, places, and things with basic adjectives.

Color vocabulary plus the truncation rule: attributive adjectives drop -i before a cased noun (ts'itel vashls), never agreeing in number.

I can describe things with colors and truncate adjectives correctly before cased nouns.

-dan marks origin in space and time, -mde the endpoint; together they frame ranges.

I can say where I come from and describe ranges in space and time.

Georgian glues its 'prepositions' to the end of the noun: Tbilisi-shi = in Tbilisi.

I can say where things are and where I am going using -shi, -ze, -tan and -dan.

The genitive-governing postpositions -tvis (for), -gan (from), shesakheb (about), gareshe (without).

I can say for whom, from whom, about what, and without what - all on the genitive base.

Compact time expressions: masdar-based -mde, ts'in, shemdeg, and ganmavlobashi patterns replacing full clauses.

I can compress time clauses into elegant two-word phrases.

The three-way quotative system: -o (their words), metki (my own words), -tko (words to relay).

I can attribute every quoted word to its true voice - theirs, mine, or relayed.

The spoken-register particles ai (pointing), hoda (story-chaining), aba (challenge/confirmation), and final ra (softening).

I can hear and deploy the particles that make Georgian sound alive.

The no-longer negation family: aghar (no longer does), veghar (can no longer), nughar (stop ...-ing).

I can express changed states - quit habits, lost abilities, and closed worries.

The post-verbal particle kholme marks habitual repetition: davdivar kholme (I usually go) vs mivdivar (I'm going).

I can distinguish and express habitual vs one-time actions using kholme.

The discourse particles k'i (contrast/yes) and khom (confirmation), plus the polite-offer pattern khom ar.

I can contrast, seek confirmation, and make polite offers with k'i and khom.

Ordinals use the circumfix me-...-e (meore, mesame); 'first' is irregular p'irveli.

I can use ordinal numbers for floors, stops, dates, and sequences.

ra (what), vin (who), sad (where), rodis (when), rogor (how), ratom (why), romeli (which).

I can ask basic questions with ra, vin, sad, rodis, rogor and ratom.

Present-unreal conditionals: rom + subjunctive condition, -di/-odi conditional result, and the tu/rom reality signal.

I can daydream, advise, and hypothesize with unreal conditionals.

Relative pronoun romelits and its case forms (romelmats, romelsats), cased by the role inside the relative clause.

I can describe people and things with relative clauses, casing romelits correctly.

Past-unreal conditionals with rom + pluperfect subjunctive, including mixed past-condition/present-result timelines.

I can talk about missed chances and alternative pasts.

Reporting speech with rom-clauses (no backshift) and the verbatim quotative particle -o attached to the quote's last word.

I can relay what others said using both rom-clauses and the Georgian -o quote.

Three negators: ar (simple not), ver (cannot), nu (don't! prohibitive).

I can choose between ar, ver and nu to say no, can't and don't.

The temporal connectors rotsa (when), sanam (while/until), rogorts k'i (as soon as) and their natural tense pairings.

I can build when/while/as-soon-as sentences across past, present, and future.

Mood selection after rom: indicative with fact-verbs, subjunctive with will-verbs, subjunctive + ar with fear-verbs.

I can pick the right mood in that-clauses for facts, wishes, and fears.

Cause connectors imitom rom and radgan vs the result connector amitom, with register and position notes.

I can explain reasons and draw conclusions with the right connector in the right position.

Purpose clauses with rom + subjunctive (and emphatic imistvis rom) - the future is banned in purpose contexts.

I can say why I do things using purpose clauses with the subjunctive.

Real conditionals: tu + indicative condition, future/imperative result, and the tu-vs-rotsa distinction.

I can make realistic if-then plans and offers.

Narrative tense weaving: imperfect backgrounds, aorist chains, dramatic present, and turme-perfect backstory.

I can tell layered stories that weave background, action, live drama, and backstory.

Pro-drop norms: verbs carry subject and object, pronouns surface only for contrast and emphasis.

I can speak with native pronoun economy - silent by default, explicit for contrast.

SOV as default, the pre-verb focus slot, topic fronting, and answering questions in the spotlight position.

I can use word order to highlight what matters and structure information naturally.

Folding relative clauses into prenominal participial phrases with genitive agents and objects - the register of written Georgian.

I can read and write the compressed participial style of formal Georgian.

Result clauses with the correlatives ise (verbs), iseti (adjectives), imdeni (nouns) + rom.

I can express vivid so-that results matched to the right word class.

Concessive structures by register: miukhedavad imisa rom, tumtsa, and the anyway-particle maints.

I can concede a point and stand my ground - in formal and casual registers.

The wish particle netav with three subjunctive depths: possible future, unreal present, and past regret.

I can express hopes, daydreams, and regrets with netav.

Synthesizing multi-layer periods: temporal, causal, relative, result, and purpose layers combined with correct moods and punctuation.

I can build and punctuate multi-layer literary sentences.

Embedded wh-questions (unchanged), yes/no questions with the post-verbal tu ara tail, and choice questions with tu.

I can report and embed questions of all three types.

The animacy-based agreement rule: animate plurals take plural verbs, inanimate plurals take singular verbs.

I can apply the animacy rule and let towers stand in the singular.

The while/until split: sanam + verb vs sanam ar + verb, with the boundary-marking (not negating) ar.

I can set time boundaries with while- and until-clauses.

rom introduces that-clauses after knowing, saying, thinking; wanting takes rom + subjunctive.

I can report knowledge, opinions, and wishes with that-clauses.

Basic coordination: da (and), magram (but), an (or), tu (if/whether) joining words and simple clauses.

I can link words and simple sentences with and, but, or, if.

The sa-...-o/-eli/-avi circumfix for purpose words: sasadilo, sadzinebeli, sach'meli, sak'itkhavi.

I can decode and coin purpose words for rooms, tools, and tasks.

The privative u-...-o (ushakro, udzilo) and possessive -iani (shakriani, mziani) derivation pair.

I can build with- and without-words for food, weather, and character.

Affectionate morphology: -iko/-una name diminutives and the sacrificial formulas genatsvale and sheni ch'irime, with their intimacy rules.

I can express graded warmth with diminutives and affection formulas - at the right closeness.

Pair compounds (ded-mama), softening reduplication (nel-nela), and m-echo pairs (khil-mili) with their meanings.

I can use pair words, reduplication, and echo pairs for natural casual color.

Productive derivation: -oba abstractions (megobroba) and the me-...-e profession circumfix (mepure, meghvine).

I can decode and build abstract nouns and profession words from familiar roots.

The honorific register: brdzan- verbs elevating others, gakhlavart/mogartmevt humbling the speaker.

I can host, visit, and phone formally - raising others and humbling myself with the right verbs.

The suppletive honorific verb pairs for eating, saying, informing, and giving - miirtmevs, brdzanebs, moakhsenebs, moartmevs.

I can host and communicate in offices with the full honorific verb set.

Toast architecture: inclusive optative opening, parallelism and triads, gaumarjos + dative peak, and the alaverdi handoff.

I can compose and deliver a structured Georgian toast - and hand it on with alaverdi.

tkven + plural verb for politeness; greetings and courtesy phrases.

I can greet people, thank them and choose between shen and tkven appropriately.

The block structure of official letters: address, gatsnobebt-informing, gtkhovt-requests, advance thanks, p'ativistsemit closing.

I can write applications, complaints, and formal replies that read as native paperwork.

batono/kalbatono + first name, bare batono? as 'pardon?', and matching shen/tkven to the warmth level of the address.

I can address strangers, officials, and family with the right Georgian form and pronoun.

The frequency scale qoveltvis-khshirad-zogjer-ishviatad-arasdros, its position before the verb, and the optional (not obligatory) doubling of the negative.

I can say how often I do things, including 'never' without a double negative.

Adverb formation with -ad (k'argad, lamazad), language-of-speech adverbs (kartulad), and the nela/male exceptions.

I can describe how actions happen using correctly formed adverbs.

Core place adverbs: ak (here), ik (there), sad (where), akhlos (near), shors (far), with sad questions.

I can say and ask where things and people are using basic place words.

The epistemic scale: autsileblad, albat, ikneb, et'qoba, turme - certainty strength and knowledge source.

I can grade my certainty and mark where my knowledge comes from.

1-10, then counting by twenties: otsi (20), ormotsi (2x20=40), samotsi (3x20=60).

I can count to 100 using the Georgian base-20 system and talk about prices and age.

Compounding hundreds and thousands (orasi, atasi), dative dates (khut maiss), and year expressions with ts'els.

I can handle prices, years, and calendar dates in real conversations.

The guli idiom family and its case frames: guli mts'qdeba, guli momivida, guli gamit'qda, gulit, gulianad.

I can express regret, anger, and warmth through the guli idiom system.

Days are numbered from Saturday (shabati): orshabati = Monday ('2nd after sabbath').

I can name the days of the week and say on which day I do things.